Similarities And Weaknesses Of The Civil War - 945 Words

The Civil War The North and South had many different weaknesses and strengths at the beginning of the Civil War in 1861. This essay will compare the political, economic, social and military strengths and weaknesses of the North and South at the beginning of the Civil War. There were many reasons for the War of the States to be fought including, but not limited to slavery, separation of states, the Constitution, and the way of life. The North and South had many political strengths and weaknesses. The South had an amazing fighting spirit because they were fighting to preserve their way of life. They were also defending their home against the northern invaders. While the North was just fighting to continue the Union, and were not as inspired. Furthermore the North had the advantage of President Lincoln being from the North, when the South did not. The South had less states in its Confederacy with only a mere fifteen states, versus the North who had nineteen states in their Union. Lincol n believed that secession was illegal under the law of the Constitution and he would declare war against the rebelling states if necessary. For the first time in American history, Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus, the right of prisoners to a trial, ergo the Union could arrest citizens who might have been southern sympathizers. The North and South had many economic strengths and weaknesses. The South had many plantations of rice, cotton, tobacco and other cash crops, which producedShow MoreRelatedHobbes And Rousseau On The Social Contract Theory1625 Words   |  7 Pagessome extent, to be based on the disquisitions of Hobbes. Conversely, Locke and Rousseau have transformed the concept of Hobbes to align with their perspectives on society and human nature. Hobbes and Rousseau have significant similarities and differences in their similarities conceptions regarding the social contract theory. Hobbes argues that man naturally desires security and order. 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Culture of Global Virtual Teams-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Compound Culture of Global Virtual Teams and Evaluates Cultural tensions. Answer: Introduction Global Virtual Teams are virtual teams, which work together as a team, but virtually. These teams communicate through communication technology like emails, fax, video or audio conferences, and telephone calls (Gibbs, 2009). Scientific description of data from a global team of software is used to clarify the structure. Framing differences of culture in terms of non-static tensions offers a fruitful theoretical framework for fostering and understanding association across diverse time, culture and space. This report outlines the analogy of culture, for understanding the compound culture of global virtual teams and evaluates cultural tensions identifying intercultural association in work arrangements virtually (Shachaf, 2008). The focus of this report is to analyse and identify the range of communication problems or issues, team members and managers working in Global Virtual Teams are presumably face, evaluate and discuss policies or strategies that the management can implement to deal with such issues. This report covers the basic definition of Global Virtual Teams with proper introduction, characteristics that differentiate GVT with Face-to-Face Teams (F2F). The report further covers the three different problems arising for Global Virtual Teams such as communication issues, cultural diversity and geographical dispersion and the management strategies to reduce and stop these problems and issues. Global Virtual Teams Global Virtual Teams (GVTs) are groups that are (a) identified by their organizations and group members as being a team; (b) are responsible for making and implementing decisions important to the organizations strategy; (c) use technology-supported communication more than face-to-face communication; and (d) work and live in different countries (Pinjani Palvia, 2013, p. 1). According to Pinjani and Palvia (2013), Global Virtual Teams are virtual teams that are acknowledged by their team members and their organizations as being a particular team with same objectives or goals. These teams make and implement decisions, which are beneficial for the organization and organizations strategy. Global Virtual Teams use technology supported communication such as emails, phone calls, video or audio conferences, fax. They generally do not work or communicate as face-to-face teams. These teams are culturally diversified, or in other words, they live and work in various different countries. Characteristics of Gvt Global Virtual Teams are much different from Face-to-Face Teams. The main characteristics of GVTs are as follows: a) Culturally Diversified: The main characteristic of GVT is that the members of these teams are from all over the world (Dorr Kelly, 2011). These teams are culturally diversified, which means, the members of these teams work and live in various countries throughout the world. b) Virtual Teams: As the name suggests, Global Virtual Teams exist virtually. These teams generally do not come face-to-face (Hambley, ONeill Kline, 2007). This virtual nature helps them work easily without any kind of distance barrier. c) Communication: The third major characteristic of Global Virtual Teams is their communication system (Flammia, Cleary Slattery, 2010). These teams communicate regularly via technology-supported communication such as emails, phone calls, fax, audio or video conferencing. GVTs communicate to collaborate with their team members. Problems Every coin has an opposite side, which means every good thing has a bad or faulty side. Similarly, one of the most important characteristics of Global Virtual Team is their unique cultural diversity. At the same time, this particular characteristic creates a havoc problem for GVTs (Shachaf, 2008). The three major problems for Global Virtual Teams are communication issues, cultural diversity and geographical dispersion. The description of the problems is as follows: Major Problems Communication Problem for Technology Global Virtual Teams have a negative effect on intercultural communication (Daim et at. 2012). This intercultural communication has a significant positive effect or impact on decision-making. The major problem for cultural diversity is the communication problem, or in other words, the language problem (Klitmoller, Schneider Jonsen, 2015). Effective and improvised technologies for intercultural communication included fax, teleconferencing, email, with the combination of team rooms and e-meetings. Communication media is selected by the influence of cultural diversity. Cultural Diversity Cultural diversity is a challenge for such teams. Modern organizations or companies deal many significant or remarkable challenges and threats because of tempestuous and stormy environments with an extreme competitive and conflicting global economy(Klitmoller Lauring, 2013). Through the diversification in culture and wide range of ideas from members all over the world, new ideas and extremely beneficial suggestions come out, which are exceptionally favorable and advantageous for the organizations growth and development (Cagiltay, Bichelmeyer Akilli, 2015). In spite of having huge advantage, cultural diversification sometimes turns out to be a problem for Global Virtual Teams. Geographical Dispersion A particular virtual team, working for the same project in different geographical locations is known as a geographical dispersed team. Geographical dispersion is a common problem in any virtual team. The main problem for geographical dispersion is the difference in time zones (Thomas, Bostrom Gouge, 2007). Different countries have time difference, which creates a major problem in communication. Another problem in geographical dispersion is the attitude towards work. Reasons for the Problems Communication Problem for Technology The main reason for the problem of communication is language or linguistic problem. When a team member of Global Virtual Team is from France, and the other team member is from Australia, there is a high chance that there will be a language or communication problem between those two team members. It may so happen that the member from France does not know English and can only communicate in French. Similarly, the member from Australia does not know French and can only communicate in English. This can lead to a major conflict in those two members, thus affecting the whole Global Virtual Team (Klitmoller Lauring, 2013). The next reason for problem in cultural diversity is the lack of non-verbal communication. This is an extremely common problem in virtual teams. These types of teams generally do not meet face-to-face; so there is no chance of non-verbal communication or body language. Non-verbal communication is an important type of communication for any team, as sometimes team members are unable to convey their words to their fellow team members due to language problem (Lockwood, 2015). Cultural Diversity An important reason for problem of cultural diversity is the diversification of different cultures in a particular team. Different countries have different cultures. This is a major reason for the problem for cultural diversity in any virtual teams (Kayworth Leidner, 2002). The diversification of cultures of two different employees often clash between each other, which further disturbs the whole team. Another reason for problem in cultural diversity is the difference in professional etiquettes. Different cultures have different etiquettes, values, attitudes and behaviors in their workplaces. While these are beneficial and enriching in a cultural dispersed professional environment, such etiquettes can even cause ill feelings or misunderstandings between other team members. An example of such etiquette is a member does not feel appropriate or correct to leave his work place before his manager or boss leaves; at the same time, another member may be used to an eight-hours working schedu le. The first member might find the second member rude, which may create a conflict between them. Difference in working styles is another important reason for problems in cultural diversity (Au Marks, 2012). Different countries and work places have different working styles, which may seem to be wrong and inappropriate for other team members. . The next major reason for conflict in cultural diversity is the attitude towards time. It has been observed that there are two types of cultures in any team. They are monochromic and polychromic culture. Individuals, who belong to polychromic culture, have the tendency to arrive late in meetings and conferences. However, individuals, belonging to monochromic culture, have the tendency to arrive on time in conferences and meetings. This creates a major problem in any team. Geographical Dispersion The world in divided into several time zones. Each country has a different time zone from another country. It sometimes occurs that a team member is trying to communicate with another team member; but the working hour is finished for the day for that member, so he is unable to communicate with his team member. This creates a havoc conflict between those two team members. Body languages play a significant role in such cases. However, this is not possible for Global Virtual Teams as they do not meet or come across with other. Attitude and working styles towards work is sometimes different for various and different countries due to geographical dispersion. Working styles usually reflect compounding differences and cultural values and ethics. Another major reason for geographical dispersion problem is the instrumental and affective communication. Instrumental communication is the sender and goal oriented communication; whereas the affective communication is the receiver and process orien ted communication (Thomas, Bostrom Gouge, 2007). In a recent survey, it is observed that the American team members deduced some of the communication events between the Japanese to be not necessary because they were not instrumental communication. These Americans did not perceive these messages and information contained the to do component. This created misunderstanding and sometimes frustration by the American team members when the Japanese team members followed the managers on their entire organizational hierarchy for a specific and particular message. While the Japanese members emphasized on being process oriented and maintaining the relationships, the Americans felt that this particular act created conflict (Kayworth Leidner, 2002). These are the common reasons for problems in geographical dispersion in GVTs. Who says it is a Problem? Communication breakdown is a major problem in GVT. Often employees cannot communicate in languages, which are unknown to them (Daim et al., 2012). This creates a huge conflict between the employees. According to Au Marks (2012), different countries have different culture, which sometimes create problems within employees. This problem is more serious if it occurs within a virtual team. This type of team has members from all over the world, thus having a cultural diversity. According to Shachaf (2008), monochromic and polychromic culture is a problem in geographical dispersion. Another reason for problem in geographical dispersion is the difference in time zones. Management STrategies Solutions for the Problems . Problems in global virtual teams, can be solved by certain management strategies (Mukherjee et al., 2012). These management strategies help to reduce problems or even sometimes remove the problems from the team and the existing team members. The management strategies that help to reduce the problems are easy to implement and can be utilized by any organization or company for their Global Virtual Teams. The solutions to the above-mentioned problems are as follows: Communication Problem GVTs often undergo communication or language problems in global virtual teams. These types of problems, even if they occur between two particular team members, can affect the whole team, which leads to the breakdown of teams spirit and motivation towards its work and their goals are not achieved. Another major problem for cultural diversity is language problem. This particular problem can be solved by a simple management strategy. Since cultural diversity enlarges and increments the confusion, ambiguity, conflict, and complexity of communication, this diversity sets higher challenges for the team members and leaders. Culturally diverse groups reveal the lower levels of cohesion. They also show the absence of shared mental models preventing the understanding amongst team members. The most genuine characteristics of miscommunication are translation problems, less reliability in communication, and slower speech. Linguistic or language problem can be solved with the help of an interprete r (Stawnicza Kurbel, 2012). When a team member in from France and he does not know any other language except French, it can become a huge problem for other team members, who are from other parts of the world and they do not know French. Interpreters play a significant role in such cases. They translate the unknown language. Every organization should hire a translator for other common languages, so that it does not become a problem for communication for other team members. This translator is more important if the team is a Global Virtual Team, as GVT contains members from all over the world with different language backgrounds. Another important problem for cultural diversity in Global Virtual Team is the lack of non-verbal communication or body language. When a team member is unable to express or convey this words or ideas to his fellow team members due to language problem, body language or non-verbal communication plays a significant role in such cases (Nunamaker, Reining Briggs, 2009). However, Global Virtual Teams are virtual teams; they do not meet generally, so they are unable to communicate with other non-verbally. The solution to this problem is organizing video conferences, so that one team member can see the body languages of other members. Cultural diversity Culture is a multidimensional and complex construct, which is notified on several levels such as organizational, regional, national and international. A huge range of several cultural factors influences each individual such as national, organizational and international. Commonly used definitions of cultural diversity include organizational, racial, national and professional amalgamation (Zander, Zettinig Makela, 2013). Cultural diversity is defined as the amalgamation of various national cultures of team members; a team members national culture is considered that of his or her country of residence. The utilization or use of ICT or Information and Communication Technology, an intercultural workforce, and reforming or changing organizational models, which increase participation of workers have changed and altered the nature of MNC or Multi National Corporations (Vaidyanathan, Sabbaghi Debrot, 2010). This utilization of ICT is an important strategy towards solving the problems in cult ural diversity. Geographical Dispersion The major problem for geographical dispersion in GVT is the difference in time zones. The world has different and several time zones. When a team member is working in his company, it may so happen that the work time is finished for the day for another member. Communication thus becomes a huge problem in this case. The strategy or solution for this particular problem is using emails instead of video or audio conferences (Noll, Beecham Richardson, 2010). Emails can be read even after office hours but video and audio conferences are done during office hours. Therefore, this problem can be solved with the help of emails or fax. Reasons for the solution Communication Problem An interpreter will solve the problem of language in a GVT. He can make understand the employees, who are unable to communicate in a specific language. As soon as the employee will understand the language, he will be able to solve the communication issue with the rest of the teams, so an interpreter is extremely important for any organization (Cagiltay, Bichelmeyer Akilli, 2015). Another solution to the communication problem is showing body language. Video conferences show the body language of the team members, which solves the problem of miscommunication of language. Non-verbal communication is another solution to the communication problem in GVT. Cultural Diversity The main solution to solve the culture diversity problem is the utilization of ICT. This technology helps to communicate with all the team members of a virtual team amongst each other through emails, fax (Zander, Zettinig Makela, 2013). ICT reduces the cultural diversity in a global virtual team as it increases the intercultural participation in the team. The reason for this solution is that ICT even removes the language problem within the team members. Geographical Dispersion The major problem of geographical dispersion is the difference in time zones. The strategy to solve this particular problem is to communicate through emails or fax. Another problem in geographical dispersion is the attitude towards time. It is seen that in almost virtual team, two types of members are present. They are of polychromic culture and monochromic culture. People, who belong to polychromic culture always, have the tendency to arrive late in meetings or conferences; whereas people, who belong to monochromic culture, have the tendency to arrive on time. This diversification creates a problem in the team. This can be solved with perfect managerial strategy. Strict laws should be involved for being late in meetings or conferences and discussions should be there to understand why polychromic members are always late (Gibbs, 2009). These are the probable solutions or managerial strategies to reduce or remove conflicts and problems in cultural diversity in Global Virtual Teams. Who says it is a solution? The attitude or the body language of a team member often creates a confusion in the minds of other team members. This body language or attitude is mainly seen in video conferences. According to Noll, Beecham Richardson (2010), this problem can be solved by using emails, fax, phone calls and audio conferences. According to Zander, Zettinig Makela (2013), ICT can be the solution to the problem of cultural diversity in GVTs. There are always two types of members in a team. They are of monochromic and polychromic culture. Monochromic people are always on time, whereas polychromic people are always late. According to Gibbs (2009), this problem can be solved by implementing strict laws for being late in meetings and conferences and with proper discussions. Conclusion Therefore, from the above discussion, it can be concluded that Global Virtual Teams or GVTs are virtual teams that work together for a specific organization to attain same and similar goals. The members of these teams are distributed or dispersed all over the world and they work virtually, which means they do not meet. GVTs have cultural diversity that helps them to explore new ideas and thus having a huge and major success. In spite of having such advantages, the cultural diversity often creates a problem due to the diversification of languages, difference in professional etiquettes, difference in time zones, attitude towards work and many more. However, all these problems in cultural diversity can be solved using proper managerial strategies References Au, Y., Marks, A. (2012). Virtual teams are literally and metaphorically invisible Employee relations, 34(3). 271-287. Cagiltay, K., Bichelmeyer, B., Akilli, G. K. (2015). Working with multicultural virtual teams: critical factors for facilitation, satisfaction and success. Smart Learning Environments, 2(1), 1-16. Daim, T. U., Ha, A., Reutiman, S., Hughes, B., Pathak, U., Bynum, W., Bhatla, A. (2012). Exploring the communication breakdown in global virtual teams. International Journal of Project Management, 30(2), 199212. Dorr, Meena., Kelly, Kip. (2011). Developing Real Skills for Virtual Teams. UNC Executive Development, 1-17. Flammia, M., Cleary, Y., Slattery, D. M. (2010). Leadership roles, socioemotional communication strategies, and technology use of Irish and US students in virtual teams. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 53(2), 89-101. Gibbs, Jennifer L., (2009). Culture as kaleidoscope: navigating cultural tensions in global collaboration. Proceedings 09 International Workshop on intercultural Collaboration, 89-98. Hambley, L. A., ONeill, T. A., Kline, T. J. (2007). Virtual team leadership: The effects of leadership style and communication medium on team interaction styles and outcomes. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 103(1), 1-20. Kayworth, T. R., Leidner, D. E. (2002). Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams. Journal of management information systems, 18(3), 7-40. Klitmoller, A., Lauring, J. (2013). When global virtual teams share knowledge: Media richness, cultural difference and language commonality. Journal of World Business, 48(3), 398-406. Klitmoller, A., Schneider, S. C., Jonsen, K. (2015). Speaking of global virtual teams: language differences, social categorization and media choice. Personnel Review, 44(2), 270-285. Lockwood, J. (2015). Virtual team management: what is causing communication breakdown?. Language and Intercultural Communication, 15(1), 125-140. Mukherjee, D., Lahiri, S., Mukherjee, D., Billing, T. K. (2012). Leading virtual teams: how do social, cognitive, and behavioral capabilities matter?. Management Decision, 50(2), 273-290. Noll, J., Beecham, S., Richardson, I. (2010). Global software development and collaboration: barriers and solutions. ACM inroads, 1(3), 66-78. Nunamaker, J., Reining, B., Briggs, R. (2009). Principles for effective virtual teamwork. Communications of the ACM, 52(4), 113-117. Pinjani, P., Palvia, P. (2013). Trust and knowledge sharing in diverse global virtual teams. Information and Management, 50(4), 144-153. Shachaf, P. (2008). Cultural diversity and information and communication technology impacts on global virtual teams: An exploratory study. Information Management, 45(2), 131-142. Stawnicza, O., Kurbel, K. (2012). How to Prevent before you Must Cure-A Comprehensive Literature Review on Conflict Management Strategies in Global Project Teams. Orlando, Florida. Thomas, D. M., Bostrom, R.P., Gouge, M. (2007). Making knowledge work in virtual teams. Communications of the ACM, 50(11), 85-90. Vaidyanathan, G., Sabbaghi, A., Debrot, C. (2010). Critical success factors in managing virtual teams: frameworks and relationships. Issues in Information Systems, 11(1), 566-570. Zander, L., Zettinig, p., Makela, K. (2013). Leading global virtual teams to success. Organizational Dynamics, 42(3 SI), 228-237.

How to Choose Tulane Optional Essay Samples

How to Choose Tulane Optional Essay Samples Ok, I Think I Understand Tulane Optional Essay Samples, Now Tell Me About Tulane Optional Essay Samples! A primary point is the aim of the human body paragraph. One of my favourite things about writing is that there's no correct or wrong answer. When you settle on this issue and select the position on which you will base your essay, the remainder of the job can then begin. In reality, you can make up any topic you want all on your own, as long because there is unlimited amount of those. Let's say your topic is to talk about an extracurricular activity that has played a huge influence on your life. Today's lesson might be a bit dull, but it's essential for future work. A great instance of a question a parent could be asked is the way the parent thinks her or his kid will add to the school. Some feel parents ought to be allowed to provide permission for their minor children to acquire tattoos, because they are making the decision for their own children. Tulane Optional Essay Samples Help! In such a situation, a student must decide on a proper topic to write about. Therefore, many students and employees decide to get cheap essay rather than writing it themselves. Fully being a happy high school student wouldn't be possible without my family members. High school, college, and sometimes even university students from all around the world are writing persuasive essays. Students have to compose essays based on the teacher's instructions or their preferred style in writing. They should not have to wear school uniforms because they limit students' ability to express their individuality. They should not have to wear uniforms. While trying to understand how to write a persuasive essay step by step, they forget about another critical activity. Essay writing is often practiced is schools. It is a very powerful tool. Writing an essay is a critical role in academe life. Writing a persuasive essay can be difficult because you're not merely presenting the research materials which you've gathered but you're trying to influence your readers. Tulane Optional Essay Samples - Dead or Alive? Your introductory paragraph needs to be clear and concise just enjoy the example. The absolute most important role of the introductory paragraph, nevertheless, is to present a crystal clear statement of the paper's argument. An outline makes sure that you've got the vital components to compose a great essay. Your intro ought to start with an intriguing hook that will draw the reader in your paper. It would be considerably more difficult to align your arguments to coordinate with the thesis, and it may diminish the worth of your assessment and the validity of your arguments. You should incorporate a distinct phrase for every one of your topics of assessment. Use the best terms you can imagine! Since 21st-century technology is developing at a fast pace, a growing number of technological innovations have to get implemented virtually every year. In your introduction paragraph, it is sufficient to introduce the topic and offer meaningful background details. If one paragraph appears to be weak, then the total level of your essay will be lacking. Such a paragraph might incorporate a succinct overview of the ideas to be discussed in body of the paper together with other information related to your paper's argument. The upcoming few paragraphs will compose most of your essay. Persuasive writing can be challenging, especially whenever you're made to face with a close-minded audience. Just adhere to the guidelines stated above, and you will be well on your way to writing an excellent persuasive essay. Evidently, you ought not purposely select a topic that will bore your audience. Observe that the objective of a persuasive speech is just like the purpose for writing an argumentative or persuasive essay.

Good Topics to Write a Persuasive Essay For

Good Topics to Write a Persuasive Essay ForOne of the first things I do when I am about to start writing an essay for school or at work is to research the topic I want to write. What kind of essays do you usually find in your college writing courses? They are usually students who have little or no experience in writing. Although I agree that to succeed in college, it would be nice if everyone had some form of writing ability, I also think that students should not be discouraged from trying.If you feel that you have a lot of writing experience but you are still having trouble writing an essay, don't despair. There are plenty of good topics to write a persuasive essay for!So, how can you find these good topics to write a persuasive essay for? Let's take a look at some of the most common topics that I know people tend to choose:Here are a few tips that will help you achieve the perfect essay with very little time and effort on your part. First, keep in mind that you do not need to have an incredible vocabulary or writing skills to write an effective essay.Effective writing can be as simple as using key words in a sentence. The key word is, however, the one that you use. Many students need to know this tip, but I will mention it anyway because it is so easy to forget.A simple way to write a persuasive essay for a topic is to focus on a single idea. For example, instead of writing an essay about 'problems in nursing,' focus on 'problems that people face with nursing.' It sounds more focused, so most readers will pick up on it right away.Another thing that makes a good topic to write a persuasive essay for is that you are attempting to convince the reader of something. Yes, in college you should be able to think for yourself, but sometimes you are going to need to be persuaded in order to get through the class, or to do homework, or even to pass a test.Remember that sometimes you have to be convinced before you can get done with your work. This is what makes persuasi ve writing so important. You want to make sure that your topic is clearly defined before you begin writing it.

How to Write a Harvard Writing Center Keyhole Essay

How to Write a Harvard Writing Center Keyhole EssayHarvard University is one of the most elite schools for students in the United States, with all sorts of financial resources and a strong sense of social justice. This is why it is imperative that high school seniors taking the entrance exam to Harvard University should study well, do their best, and write a Harvard Writing Center Keyhole Essay that they can show off to their families and friends.A Keyhole Essay is an essay that can be quite short or as long as you desire. There are no guidelines for the length of an essay. What you have to do is put together a list of questions that will require you to research the topic. You can use the Keyhole Essay and this helps you to do this.A Keyhole Essay can be written in either English or in any other language you desire. This essay can be presented in the formal tone of the professor and the informal, more human tone of the student writing it. The format is completely up to you.When writi ng a Keyhole Essay, you should consider the professor, the teacher, and the college. For instance, you might feel comfortable going in on a college professor who you know loves animals, so you might write about a lion or tiger, a monkey, or a tortoise. You might also be nervous about going in on a professor who you know has a very specific career goal, so you might write about something entirely different.To help you organize your thoughts, use the school and the professors as lenses through which to look at your essay. You can then focus on each section, step by step, to make sure that your essay makes sense. The first two sections are obviously the most important, and you should focus on these first.The section called The Setting will deal with the matter of the professor's area of interest, as well as the subject of your writing. This section should be a description of the setting and the situation you find yourself in when you are writing the essay. For instance, you might write about you having just arrived in the city where the professor teaches and you don't know anyone. It would help if you started with something simple like 'I arrive in New York City' and then became more detailed as you continued the essay.After you've completed your Harvard Writing Center Keyhole Essay, it would be a good idea to have someone read it to you and critique it. The purpose of the critique is to help you see what you may have overlooked and make sure that your essay is up to par with the standards for Harvard.

How to Evaluate a Students Peer Review Response - Sample Essay

How to Evaluate a Student's Peer Review Response - Sample EssayWriting a sample essay or a student's peer review response is an important part of a successful college education. A good grade for a school paper reflects that the essay is well written and well researched. A student is better equipped to answer questions from fellow students about topics which they don't have experience with. Sample essays are one of the best tools you can use in developing these skills.The most common and effective form of essay samples is a quick one-page essay. The most popular format for writing these types of essays is for students to write their personal statement. This is basically an introductory paragraph for the essay.Since students are often asked to write about several different topics, it is important to make sure that your topic is one that you are familiar with. Sometimes a student is asked to write a half-page or one-page essay on a current issue, but in order to get all of this informat ion out in a short space of time, you may want to consider having the student write an essay in word documents. Your student can then edit the paper and cross-out sections that he or she feels are no longer relevant to the topic.If you have already received a student's paper for peer review response, this is where you will find a sample of their essay. For this reason, it is important to provide students with feedback on their samples so that they will know what kind of comments they should make about the essay.Before you send a student's paper to the editor, you should give them the option to send a paper for peer review response instead of a final assignment. There is nothing wrong with receiving your student's paper for peer review response, but it is often difficult to take into account the ideas they propose. You may want to ask your students to write a review essay or research paper instead. This is an opportunity for your students to show their writing capabilities and hone t heir skills.You may also want to provide students with an opportunity to add an 'instructions' section to their student's peer review response. This can be either a list of instructions that your student should follow or they can include some bits of advice that they feel they need to include. As you discuss your student's essay with the other editors, it is very important to remember that you are reviewing the essay, not the student. While you are the one reading the paper, it is important to make sure that your review includes a balanced perspective and you are providing a professional opinion.In addition to reviewing and evaluating the essay, you should also review the paper's grammar and spelling. If you spot any mistakes or inconsistencies that are not present in the essay as a whole, you should contact the student immediately and provide them with advice on how to correct the mistakes.

The heat given out by different types of primary alcohols Essay Example

The heat given out by different types of primary alcohols Essay In my investigation I will measure the heat given out by different types of primary alcohols when combusting with oxygen and compare the difference in the energy out put per mole of different alcohols.HypothesesBefore we can have a look at the heat content of the different alcohols, we must be able to understand the process of combustion, the changes of the energy within the system while combusting with oxygen and how to determine the difference of the energy given out per unit.First it is crucial to know that it is the external energy that we are measuring of the system, because as the Second Law of thermodynamics states that heat cannot be completely converted into work without some part of the system undergoing change, a equation is applied to the law illustrates that H (total heat content) = G (free energy) + TS (temperatureà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½entropy, TS is the unfree energy which is associated with the degree of disorder of the system), and H can only be equal to G when TS=0 which only takes place at the temperature of absolute zero.We therefore cannot measure the total change in enthalpy (total heat content) since the 3rd law of thermodynamics states that absolute zero cannot be reached; the entropy which measures the degree of disorder also increases spontaneously that the particles of the system become disorderer or more random. What this investigation measures is the spontaneous change in the free energy which is converted into heat as stated in the second law of thermodynamics.Then it is necessary to know that the reaction is exothermic that is heat or in another word kinetic energy and light energy, which is the emission given out when the exited electron return to a lower energy levels, are given out to the surroundings causing the surroundings to gain more kinetic energy and rise in temperature. We can measure the different values of the bond energy of the reactants and the variation between the two values, if the value of variation is positive i.e. when energy is gained the reaction is endothermic, but if the value appears to be negative, then the reaction is exothermic. It is possible to calculate the average bond energy measured in kilo joules per mole (DH/KJ mol-1) and determine the variation. Knowing that C-H=413; C-O=336; C==O=805; H-O=464; O==O=498.3 and the following equation it is possible to calculate ?E.2CH3 (OH) +3O2= 2CO2 +4H2O(413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3+336+464)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4=-1359.1 KJ, thus the reaction is exothermic. And since the reactions of other alcohols are similar then we can say that the other alcohol combustions are exothermic.Another fact that we must know is that the end products of any combustion reaction are carbon dioxide and water, but before the new molecules can be formed, a certain energy level is needed to give sufficient energy for the collision by what means that if the energy is not sufficient or incorrectly orientated the react ants will not form, sufficient energy that is needed to be reached is the activation energy of the system to form the activated complex that the atoms are separated.From the state of transition the particles in the molecules now attract to particles of opposite charge, and the orbital become over lapped that the some electrons of the orbital in the outer shell are influenced by both nuclei and therefore forms the molecular orbital (M.O.), and the electrons occupies the orbital whose energy is the lowest available to it. The filling of electrons to the M.O. i.e. the orbital in the sub-shells of the shells are filled up with electrons leads to the drop in energy level of the electrons which can also be called bond energy since it is the energy needed for the transition of energy level of the electrons. This can also be regarded as spontaneous change of the system that it tend to a minimum in potential energy, because the first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be cr eated nor destroyed but is simply transferred from one form or system another, the decrease in the energy level of the electrons must mean that energy is transferred to the surroundings.From the information above I can now decide that the energy released per mole is determine by the decrease in energy level of the electrons of the valence shell spontaneously and the number of M.O. When there are more carbon atoms with in an alcohol, there will be more hydrogen atoms within the molecule as well, so that when the new molecules are formed there will be more M.O. of the similar sort formed and more energy will be released, according to the theories I have explained above.If we know the value of the reduction in the energy level when the M.O. are formed (the bond energy), the symbol equation of the reactions and the relative atomic mass (R.A.M.), then it is possible to calculate the energy given out per mole. I will work out the energy released per mole and I would expect the result of m y experiment follow a similar pattern of increase of the set of values below. As we already knew, C-H=413; C-O=336; C==O=805; H-O=464; O==O=498.3; C-C=347Methanol: 2CH3OH+3O2= 2CO2 +4H2O(413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3+336+464)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4=-1359.1 kJ; 1359.1?2=679.55kJ mol-1Ethanol: C2H5OH+3O2=2CO2+3H2O347+413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5+336+464+3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½498.3-(805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2-(464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½= -1297.1kJ1297.1à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1=1297.1 kJ mol-1Propan-1-ol: 2C3H7OH+9O2=6CO2+8H2O(347à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½7+336+464)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½6-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½8= -3829.3kJ3829.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2=1914.65 kJ mol-1Butan-1-ol: C4H9OH+6O2=4CO2+5H2O347à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3+413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9+336+464+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½6-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5= -2532.2kJ2532.2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1=2532.2kJ mol-1From these set of results it is possible to predict that as the number of carbon atoms increases within an alcohol molecule, the energy out put per mole will also increase.Safety* Alcohols are highly flammable so that the spirit burners must be dealt with caution, any alcohol spillages on any surfaces must be cleaned immediately in case of fire.* Alcohols can cause blindness and death when took into the body, one must seek medical attention when took in.* Avoid touching the apparatus directly after experiments, when which will be heated up.* The flame must be kept distance away from other unnecessary apparatus.* Safety goggles and lab coats must be worn, and first aid kits and other first aid equipments must be ready in case of emergencies. (See photo 4)Apparatus* Spirit burner containing methanol, ethanol, propanol-1-ol and butanol-1-ol* Stand, boss and clamp* Thermometer* Digital balance accurate to 10-2 digits* Ruler* 2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100ml2 measuring cylinder* Safety goggles, lab coats* Stop clock* Tin can* Heat proof mat(See photo 1)Method In order to carry out this investigation, two measurements must be taken; they are the loss in the weight of the alcohols, and the temperature change of the water. Subsequently before we can start the experiment we must measure the weight of the spirit burner, and record the reading. Then the stand boss and the clamp should be set up to fix the tin in place. The reason why I have chosen the tin to be the calorimeter is because it is a good conductor to heat thus it has a relatively low heat capacity, and more kinetic energy can be passed to the water molecules efficiently to make accurate my results.The spirit burner should be positioned directly beneath the tin and a heat proof mat is needed to be placed under the spirit burner. The distance between the peak of the wick and the bottom of the tin must be kept constant in order to carry out a fair comparison. A draught shield is needed to be placed around the spirit burner and the tin to prevent the unnecessary heat loss that could v ary the result of the experiment. (See photo 2) After the apparatus have been set up as described above, then we must measure 200ml of water of 2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100ml measuring cylinder and add which to the tin, and then place the thermometer to the water and wait until the reading is stable. It important to keep the volume of water constant since the energy required to raise 1oc is associated with the mass.This stable reading can give the actual temperature before the experiment and this also tells me the temperature of the tin since the one have higher energy tends to give out energy spontaneously and equilibrium can be reached between the two. Knowing the heat capacity of the tin it is possible to calculate how much energy the calorimeter receives and this can give me a more accurate value of the heat generated by the alcohol. Since equilibrium can be reached by energy transfer from a hotter system to a colder, I can therefor say that the temperature of the tin can is almost the same as the water. Now that knowing the heat capacity of the calorimeter system which is 0.277 kJ m3 oc and the weight of the tin can is 40.937g, then the energy that had been absorbed in each of the experiments can be calculated.After the preparations it is time to start the experiment by lighting the spirit burner thought the hole in the draught shield using a stick. The experiment will be carried out for approximately 180 seconds, the time is set upon the preliminary work I have done that this could prevent the maximum evaporation of water while efficient energy can be gained by the water to show a positive result. The reading from the thermometer must be taking quite exactly the same time when the flame extinguishes so that an accurate value can result that further out put of energy that will not be taken into account can be avoided.The spirit burner must also be weighed immediately to give a result as accurate as possible, since the weight can be reduced from other ways such as eva poration. The experiment of each alcohol will be carried out 3 times to give an accurate result and the same experiment will be repeated for each alcohol. Between each experiment it is necessary to clean off the carbon as the result of incomplete combustion produced at the bottom of the tin, because it can act as an insulator which will have effects on the accuracy of the results. One other of the natures of combustions is that the flame is not stable and within a flame the distribution of heat is not equal.Consequently it must me made sure that the sizes of the flames are the same since the distance between the wick and the tin can is already at constant. A difference between the cotton part, which is the interior of the wick, and the exterior material can cause a difference in the size of the flame, thus I have decided to cut the wick before each experiment to maintain the size of the flames. (See Photo 3) At this point it is vital to point out that the range of alcohol used be li mited within the primary alcohols, which all have similar molecular structures in terms of the arrangement, so that methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol and butan-1-ol are used. I also felt that there is no significance in caring out the experiment further that pentan-1-ol and hexan-1-ol are necessary, since I can discover the pattern from the first four.Fair testIn the table below I will illustrate the thing that I will keep constant and that will vary to produce results of use.VariablesConstantsType of primary alcoholVolume of waterApproximately the same timeDistance between the top of spirit burner and the bottom of tinApproximately the same surface area of tin covered by the draught shieldWickThe same calorimeterResults:(See table 1, 2, 3 and graph 1, 2,3)Analysis:By looking a Graph 1, it is possible to see the correlation between the number of carbon atoms and the energy output per mole. The correlation had illustrated that both the expected values and observed values are positive, h ow ever the expected values increase steadily with a high gradient than the values of the experiment. The outcome was expected and the cause had already been explained in the hypothesis. First by nature it is not possible to make 100% use from the energy given out by the reaction, because the energy given is mainly in the form of heat, the movement of particles that can be lost very easily.Evidence have also shown that the combustion is not complete because carbon, one of the activated complex in the process of the reaction had not been combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide, thus less energy is produced by the reaction due to the incomplete combustion; the amount of carbon collected at the bottom of the tin can had increased as the alcohols containing more carbon was used, showing that more of the combustion/reaction was incomplete when the time for each spirit burner to combust was roughly 180 seconds.From graph 1 along, it is difficult to identify the anomalies due to its sc ale, thus the observed results had been put onto a new graph. (See graph 3) From the graph it is then possible to see that there is no anomalies in the experiment since the line of best fit goes through the error bars of the plotted points on the graph, the error bars represented the possible variation of data due to the inaccuracies experiment. But when looking at graph 2, the percentage of accuracy decreases as the number of carbon increases, butan-1-ol in particular had an anomalous value. If one of the values of the data in the percentage/accuracy graph is anomalous, then this value must also be at the wrong position in the energy output/carbon atoms graph, however there is not enough evident to investigate further.The characteristics of this calorimeter system only allows us to measure the heat transfer from one system to another, however heat was not the only product of the reaction that a relatively large part of the energy is in the forms of light, which cannot be measured b y the calorimeter system. However the difference in the gradient of the two lines of best fit had shown that they increase at different rates, i.e. there are errors in the last experiments which had made the rate of increase of the observed values differ from the expected.The percentage of accuracy of the results obtain from the experiment is shown on graph 2. From which it is clear that the results became less accurate as the chain of carbons got longer, in theory the molecule will increase its activation energy as the number of carbon atoms increases because each carbon atom have 4 half full sub-shells, since the electrons follow the Hund principle which states that when filling a sub-shell, there is less electron repulsion if each of each orbital is half-filled first before any single one is completely filled.In the M shell of carbon, 2s, 2px, 2py and 2pz orbital are half filled of that the 4 unpaired electrons can attract 4 other nuclei, thus the more carbon there is the half fi lled orbital there are. Again, as I had stated in my prediction that the energy level, the potential energy in particular of the electrons will drop, when an orbital is full, therefore more energy is required to provide sufficient energy i.e. bring back the initial energy level of the electrons for collision to occur properly. The more carbon atoms there are, the fuller orbital thus larger amount of energy will fall. The higher activation energy made difficult the supply of which, thus a larger amount is combusted improperly, and this can then explain the decrease in percentage of accuracy.Equally if there are more carbon atoms in the reactants, more products will form, and I had already investigated in my prediction that the reaction is exothermic, i.e. the energy given by the products is higher than the energy put in to the system due to the characteristics of different types of bonds. In this case, there are more bonds in the products, although the type of bonding may be differen t (? and ? bonds) that they have different energy levels.From my results it is possible of see that as the number of carbon atoms increased in a primary alcohol molecule, the energy output of it also increases. This had matched my prediction although the pattern between the expected and the observed is different.Evaluation:The results had shown a positive correlation between the set of results, however the results had also shown that the experiment did not accurately measure the energy output of the alcohols on graph 1. However there is potential to make more accurate the experiment by using method that could prevent as much heat loss as possible.Before it is possible to make further improvements on the investigation, probable errors must be identified and analyzed. It would consolidated my conclusion, in witch the particular errors are unidentified, if I had more evidence about the trend in the deduction of the percentage of accuracy, thus I would be a good idea to obtain the value s of pentan-1-ol and hexan-1-ol. However if the equipments such as a variety of alcohols are not available, then more accurate methods can my applied to the current investigation to reduce the probability of anomalies occurring.First the heat produced by the reaction is not efficiently used to heat up the water, which can cause potential inaccuracies; some heat is lost to the surroundings and not taking in by water, because some would be conducted away by the apparatus e.g. the tin can some would be absorbed by the cylinder (not include in the calculation) and some lost through convection or move spontaneously to where air molecules have less energy due to nature. To solve the problem black painted tin cans which is able to absorb the maximum radiation given, and the infra red waved are able to heat up the water molecules. Yet not all part of the tin should be painted black, the inside and the outside of the sides of the tin can must maintain its shiny colour to prevent radiation gi ven out by the heated up tin can.Some sort of insulation of the tin can is also able to avoid heat lost through conduction, consequently the tin can should be wrapped with wools to preserve the heat within. The apparatus that are purposed to preserve the heat are not all ideal, the cylinder used to increase the heat given to tin can should have had a higher heat capacity, because the draught shield was heated up but the large amount of energy, due to the large change in temperature, cannot and was not calculated. It would possibly be a good idea to use a better insulated draught shield, so that it would also by wrapped with wools and coated with silver paint to reduce conduction and radiation to the minimal. An enclosed and well insulated chamber can also increase the efficiency of the usage of the energy, by bring to a close the escape of the heat.Many other faults were caused by ineffectual apparatus. The hole that was used to light spirit burner acted as a drought, which provided oxygen which is an element in the equation of combustion, but this also had made the flame unstable due to the movement of the air. The thermometer was accurate 0.5 oC which could impact the final result, if the thermometer was accurate to 10-2 the results would be more accurate and more reliable. The shielding that are purposed to prevent heat loss can impede the process of putting off the flame, therefore the change in mass did not match the reading of the thermometer when taken, and the level of heat with in the chamber will not be consistent through out the experiment when attempting to distinguish the flame by capping the burner. This problem would be very difficult to solve that it would be difficult to have an enclosed system to prevent heat loss and to ensure that the flame can be distinguished easily.One other cause of error of my experiment was that the alcohols are not completely combusted because the activation energy cannot be reached when only little partition of the alcohols in the spirit burner are being burnt and not producing enough energy for efficient collision between particles so that carbon atoms are formed at the bottom of the tin can. The building up of the carbon also acted as an insulator that the heat cannot be conducted to the tin can and will impact on the results of my experiment. Again this is a problem that I have to face when the experiment is repeated, although the carbon can be displace after each experiment, but the effect of which during the experiment cannot be solved.Now that I think it is appropriate to introduce a different method which would guarantee the energy of the reaction can be accurately measured. In the current experiment heat loss to the surroundings and therefore the energy towards the water was not efficient, but if the surroundings, where heat is given to, is water then maximum percentage of energy released by the experiment would be given to water where it can be measured. The error occurred in measurin g the mass was also a factor affecting the anomalous results, thus a given mass can be allowed to be completely combusted so that an accurate value can be obtained.Some of the energy given to water are lost, or transferred to the surrounding of the calorimeter which cannot be measured, the heat is transferred is because one system has more energy than the other. Knowing this if the calorimeter can be maintained at the same temperature as the water with, no heat transfer can occur through conduction, and when the calorimeter is concealed no further heat can escape by convection. In order to reduce radiation, as described above, the calorimeter can be coated in shiny colour. Rather than preceding the experiment in a spirit burner, where only a little mass of alcohol was being burnt which could not proved efficient energy output that the wrong proportion of which could be used to provide the efficiency for collision, and result in incomplete combustion.A larger mass could be burnt in a given length of time to produce more energy to secure further efficiency in collision. The appropriate apparatus which suites the description above would be a bomb calorimeter. (See diagram 1) The combustion would take place in the bomb where is cased with steel, which could with stand the impact of the explosion when alcohol being combusted and also conduct heat to the calorimeter. Within the bomb the reaction is triggered by a fuse-wire which is conducted to the mains, the fuse then burns the cotton attached to it and light the flame.The bomb is also well supplied with 25 atmosphere of oxygen, pumped in with a pipe, thus no draught is need. The bomb then will be placed in a calorimeter system filled with water, as stated above that maximum energy can be transferred in the water which can then be measured, the wall of this calorimeter will be filled with water and the temperature of which is controlled by a coil which equalizes the temperature so that heat cannot can not escape or get into the calorimeter. Because the heat cannot be transferred in or out of the calorimeter, the maximum temperature the system reaches would be almost, if not all the free energy of the reaction.As well as to discover the pattern among the primary alcohols, secondary and tertiary alcohols can also be investigated. We already know the relationship between the numbers of carbon atoms or the length of the carbon chain and the energy output, it would be equally significant to learn the science when the carbons are not in a chain or a irregular chain, and how a hybridized carbon if any at all is able to alter the results. Investigations could be among propan-2-ol, butan-2-ol, pentan-2-ol, hexan-2-ol, cyclohexanol and 2-methyl-propan-2-ol. The heat given out by different types of primary alcohols Essay Example The heat given out by different types of primary alcohols Essay In my investigation I will measure the heat given out by different types of primary alcohols when combusting with oxygen and compare the difference in the energy out put per mole of different alcohols.HypothesesBefore we can have a look at the heat content of the different alcohols, we must be able to understand the process of combustion, the changes of the energy within the system while combusting with oxygen and how to determine the difference of the energy given out per unit.First it is crucial to know that it is the external energy that we are measuring of the system, because as the Second Law of thermodynamics states that heat cannot be completely converted into work without some part of the system undergoing change, a equation is applied to the law illustrates that H (total heat content) = G (free energy) + TS (temperatureà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½entropy, TS is the unfree energy which is associated with the degree of disorder of the system), and H can only be equal to G when TS=0 which only takes place at the temperature of absolute zero.We therefore cannot measure the total change in enthalpy (total heat content) since the 3rd law of thermodynamics states that absolute zero cannot be reached; the entropy which measures the degree of disorder also increases spontaneously that the particles of the system become disorderer or more random. What this investigation measures is the spontaneous change in the free energy which is converted into heat as stated in the second law of thermodynamics.Then it is necessary to know that the reaction is exothermic that is heat or in another word kinetic energy and light energy, which is the emission given out when the exited electron return to a lower energy levels, are given out to the surroundings causing the surroundings to gain more kinetic energy and rise in temperature. We can measure the different values of the bond energy of the reactants and the variation between the two values, if the value of variation is positive i.e. when energy is gained the reaction is endothermic, but if the value appears to be negative, then the reaction is exothermic. It is possible to calculate the average bond energy measured in kilo joules per mole (DH/KJ mol-1) and determine the variation. Knowing that C-H=413; C-O=336; C==O=805; H-O=464; O==O=498.3 and the following equation it is possible to calculate ?E.2CH3 (OH) +3O2= 2CO2 +4H2O(413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3+336+464)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4=-1359.1 KJ, thus the reaction is exothermic. And since the reactions of other alcohols are similar then we can say that the other alcohol combustions are exothermic.Another fact that we must know is that the end products of any combustion reaction are carbon dioxide and water, but before the new molecules can be formed, a certain energy level is needed to give sufficient energy for the collision by what means that if the energy is not sufficient or incorrectly orientated the react ants will not form, sufficient energy that is needed to be reached is the activation energy of the system to form the activated complex that the atoms are separated.From the state of transition the particles in the molecules now attract to particles of opposite charge, and the orbital become over lapped that the some electrons of the orbital in the outer shell are influenced by both nuclei and therefore forms the molecular orbital (M.O.), and the electrons occupies the orbital whose energy is the lowest available to it. The filling of electrons to the M.O. i.e. the orbital in the sub-shells of the shells are filled up with electrons leads to the drop in energy level of the electrons which can also be called bond energy since it is the energy needed for the transition of energy level of the electrons. This can also be regarded as spontaneous change of the system that it tend to a minimum in potential energy, because the first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be cr eated nor destroyed but is simply transferred from one form or system another, the decrease in the energy level of the electrons must mean that energy is transferred to the surroundings.From the information above I can now decide that the energy released per mole is determine by the decrease in energy level of the electrons of the valence shell spontaneously and the number of M.O. When there are more carbon atoms with in an alcohol, there will be more hydrogen atoms within the molecule as well, so that when the new molecules are formed there will be more M.O. of the similar sort formed and more energy will be released, according to the theories I have explained above.If we know the value of the reduction in the energy level when the M.O. are formed (the bond energy), the symbol equation of the reactions and the relative atomic mass (R.A.M.), then it is possible to calculate the energy given out per mole. I will work out the energy released per mole and I would expect the result of m y experiment follow a similar pattern of increase of the set of values below. As we already knew, C-H=413; C-O=336; C==O=805; H-O=464; O==O=498.3; C-C=347Methanol: 2CH3OH+3O2= 2CO2 +4H2O(413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3+336+464)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4=-1359.1 kJ; 1359.1?2=679.55kJ mol-1Ethanol: C2H5OH+3O2=2CO2+3H2O347+413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5+336+464+3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½498.3-(805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2-(464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½= -1297.1kJ1297.1à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1=1297.1 kJ mol-1Propan-1-ol: 2C3H7OH+9O2=6CO2+8H2O(347à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½7+336+464)à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½6-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½8= -3829.3kJ3829.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2=1914.65 kJ mol-1Butan-1-ol: C4H9OH+6O2=4CO2+5H2O347à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3+413à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9+336+464+498.3à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½6-805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4-464à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5= -2532.2kJ2532.2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1=2532.2kJ mol-1From these set of results it is possible to predict that as the number of carbon atoms increases within an alcohol molecule, the energy out put per mole will also increase.Safety* Alcohols are highly flammable so that the spirit burners must be dealt with caution, any alcohol spillages on any surfaces must be cleaned immediately in case of fire.* Alcohols can cause blindness and death when took into the body, one must seek medical attention when took in.* Avoid touching the apparatus directly after experiments, when which will be heated up.* The flame must be kept distance away from other unnecessary apparatus.* Safety goggles and lab coats must be worn, and first aid kits and other first aid equipments must be ready in case of emergencies. (See photo 4)Apparatus* Spirit burner containing methanol, ethanol, propanol-1-ol and butanol-1-ol* Stand, boss and clamp* Thermometer* Digital balance accurate to 10-2 digits* Ruler* 2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100ml2 measuring cylinder* Safety goggles, lab coats* Stop clock* Tin can* Heat proof mat(See photo 1)Method In order to carry out this investigation, two measurements must be taken; they are the loss in the weight of the alcohols, and the temperature change of the water. Subsequently before we can start the experiment we must measure the weight of the spirit burner, and record the reading. Then the stand boss and the clamp should be set up to fix the tin in place. The reason why I have chosen the tin to be the calorimeter is because it is a good conductor to heat thus it has a relatively low heat capacity, and more kinetic energy can be passed to the water molecules efficiently to make accurate my results.The spirit burner should be positioned directly beneath the tin and a heat proof mat is needed to be placed under the spirit burner. The distance between the peak of the wick and the bottom of the tin must be kept constant in order to carry out a fair comparison. A draught shield is needed to be placed around the spirit burner and the tin to prevent the unnecessary heat loss that could v ary the result of the experiment. (See photo 2) After the apparatus have been set up as described above, then we must measure 200ml of water of 2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100ml measuring cylinder and add which to the tin, and then place the thermometer to the water and wait until the reading is stable. It important to keep the volume of water constant since the energy required to raise 1oc is associated with the mass.This stable reading can give the actual temperature before the experiment and this also tells me the temperature of the tin since the one have higher energy tends to give out energy spontaneously and equilibrium can be reached between the two. Knowing the heat capacity of the tin it is possible to calculate how much energy the calorimeter receives and this can give me a more accurate value of the heat generated by the alcohol. Since equilibrium can be reached by energy transfer from a hotter system to a colder, I can therefor say that the temperature of the tin can is almost the same as the water. Now that knowing the heat capacity of the calorimeter system which is 0.277 kJ m3 oc and the weight of the tin can is 40.937g, then the energy that had been absorbed in each of the experiments can be calculated.After the preparations it is time to start the experiment by lighting the spirit burner thought the hole in the draught shield using a stick. The experiment will be carried out for approximately 180 seconds, the time is set upon the preliminary work I have done that this could prevent the maximum evaporation of water while efficient energy can be gained by the water to show a positive result. The reading from the thermometer must be taking quite exactly the same time when the flame extinguishes so that an accurate value can result that further out put of energy that will not be taken into account can be avoided.The spirit burner must also be weighed immediately to give a result as accurate as possible, since the weight can be reduced from other ways such as eva poration. The experiment of each alcohol will be carried out 3 times to give an accurate result and the same experiment will be repeated for each alcohol. Between each experiment it is necessary to clean off the carbon as the result of incomplete combustion produced at the bottom of the tin, because it can act as an insulator which will have effects on the accuracy of the results. One other of the natures of combustions is that the flame is not stable and within a flame the distribution of heat is not equal.Consequently it must me made sure that the sizes of the flames are the same since the distance between the wick and the tin can is already at constant. A difference between the cotton part, which is the interior of the wick, and the exterior material can cause a difference in the size of the flame, thus I have decided to cut the wick before each experiment to maintain the size of the flames. (See Photo 3) At this point it is vital to point out that the range of alcohol used be li mited within the primary alcohols, which all have similar molecular structures in terms of the arrangement, so that methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol and butan-1-ol are used. I also felt that there is no significance in caring out the experiment further that pentan-1-ol and hexan-1-ol are necessary, since I can discover the pattern from the first four.Fair testIn the table below I will illustrate the thing that I will keep constant and that will vary to produce results of use.VariablesConstantsType of primary alcoholVolume of waterApproximately the same timeDistance between the top of spirit burner and the bottom of tinApproximately the same surface area of tin covered by the draught shieldWickThe same calorimeterResults:(See table 1, 2, 3 and graph 1, 2,3)Analysis:By looking a Graph 1, it is possible to see the correlation between the number of carbon atoms and the energy output per mole. The correlation had illustrated that both the expected values and observed values are positive, h ow ever the expected values increase steadily with a high gradient than the values of the experiment. The outcome was expected and the cause had already been explained in the hypothesis. First by nature it is not possible to make 100% use from the energy given out by the reaction, because the energy given is mainly in the form of heat, the movement of particles that can be lost very easily.Evidence have also shown that the combustion is not complete because carbon, one of the activated complex in the process of the reaction had not been combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide, thus less energy is produced by the reaction due to the incomplete combustion; the amount of carbon collected at the bottom of the tin can had increased as the alcohols containing more carbon was used, showing that more of the combustion/reaction was incomplete when the time for each spirit burner to combust was roughly 180 seconds.From graph 1 along, it is difficult to identify the anomalies due to its sc ale, thus the observed results had been put onto a new graph. (See graph 3) From the graph it is then possible to see that there is no anomalies in the experiment since the line of best fit goes through the error bars of the plotted points on the graph, the error bars represented the possible variation of data due to the inaccuracies experiment. But when looking at graph 2, the percentage of accuracy decreases as the number of carbon increases, butan-1-ol in particular had an anomalous value. If one of the values of the data in the percentage/accuracy graph is anomalous, then this value must also be at the wrong position in the energy output/carbon atoms graph, however there is not enough evident to investigate further.The characteristics of this calorimeter system only allows us to measure the heat transfer from one system to another, however heat was not the only product of the reaction that a relatively large part of the energy is in the forms of light, which cannot be measured b y the calorimeter system. However the difference in the gradient of the two lines of best fit had shown that they increase at different rates, i.e. there are errors in the last experiments which had made the rate of increase of the observed values differ from the expected.The percentage of accuracy of the results obtain from the experiment is shown on graph 2. From which it is clear that the results became less accurate as the chain of carbons got longer, in theory the molecule will increase its activation energy as the number of carbon atoms increases because each carbon atom have 4 half full sub-shells, since the electrons follow the Hund principle which states that when filling a sub-shell, there is less electron repulsion if each of each orbital is half-filled first before any single one is completely filled.In the M shell of carbon, 2s, 2px, 2py and 2pz orbital are half filled of that the 4 unpaired electrons can attract 4 other nuclei, thus the more carbon there is the half fi lled orbital there are. Again, as I had stated in my prediction that the energy level, the potential energy in particular of the electrons will drop, when an orbital is full, therefore more energy is required to provide sufficient energy i.e. bring back the initial energy level of the electrons for collision to occur properly. The more carbon atoms there are, the fuller orbital thus larger amount of energy will fall. The higher activation energy made difficult the supply of which, thus a larger amount is combusted improperly, and this can then explain the decrease in percentage of accuracy.Equally if there are more carbon atoms in the reactants, more products will form, and I had already investigated in my prediction that the reaction is exothermic, i.e. the energy given by the products is higher than the energy put in to the system due to the characteristics of different types of bonds. In this case, there are more bonds in the products, although the type of bonding may be differen t (? and ? bonds) that they have different energy levels.From my results it is possible of see that as the number of carbon atoms increased in a primary alcohol molecule, the energy output of it also increases. This had matched my prediction although the pattern between the expected and the observed is different.Evaluation:The results had shown a positive correlation between the set of results, however the results had also shown that the experiment did not accurately measure the energy output of the alcohols on graph 1. However there is potential to make more accurate the experiment by using method that could prevent as much heat loss as possible.Before it is possible to make further improvements on the investigation, probable errors must be identified and analyzed. It would consolidated my conclusion, in witch the particular errors are unidentified, if I had more evidence about the trend in the deduction of the percentage of accuracy, thus I would be a good idea to obtain the value s of pentan-1-ol and hexan-1-ol. However if the equipments such as a variety of alcohols are not available, then more accurate methods can my applied to the current investigation to reduce the probability of anomalies occurring.First the heat produced by the reaction is not efficiently used to heat up the water, which can cause potential inaccuracies; some heat is lost to the surroundings and not taking in by water, because some would be conducted away by the apparatus e.g. the tin can some would be absorbed by the cylinder (not include in the calculation) and some lost through convection or move spontaneously to where air molecules have less energy due to nature. To solve the problem black painted tin cans which is able to absorb the maximum radiation given, and the infra red waved are able to heat up the water molecules. Yet not all part of the tin should be painted black, the inside and the outside of the sides of the tin can must maintain its shiny colour to prevent radiation gi ven out by the heated up tin can.Some sort of insulation of the tin can is also able to avoid heat lost through conduction, consequently the tin can should be wrapped with wools to preserve the heat within. The apparatus that are purposed to preserve the heat are not all ideal, the cylinder used to increase the heat given to tin can should have had a higher heat capacity, because the draught shield was heated up but the large amount of energy, due to the large change in temperature, cannot and was not calculated. It would possibly be a good idea to use a better insulated draught shield, so that it would also by wrapped with wools and coated with silver paint to reduce conduction and radiation to the minimal. An enclosed and well insulated chamber can also increase the efficiency of the usage of the energy, by bring to a close the escape of the heat.Many other faults were caused by ineffectual apparatus. The hole that was used to light spirit burner acted as a drought, which provided oxygen which is an element in the equation of combustion, but this also had made the flame unstable due to the movement of the air. The thermometer was accurate 0.5 oC which could impact the final result, if the thermometer was accurate to 10-2 the results would be more accurate and more reliable. The shielding that are purposed to prevent heat loss can impede the process of putting off the flame, therefore the change in mass did not match the reading of the thermometer when taken, and the level of heat with in the chamber will not be consistent through out the experiment when attempting to distinguish the flame by capping the burner. This problem would be very difficult to solve that it would be difficult to have an enclosed system to prevent heat loss and to ensure that the flame can be distinguished easily.One other cause of error of my experiment was that the alcohols are not completely combusted because the activation energy cannot be reached when only little partition of the alcohols in the spirit burner are being burnt and not producing enough energy for efficient collision between particles so that carbon atoms are formed at the bottom of the tin can. The building up of the carbon also acted as an insulator that the heat cannot be conducted to the tin can and will impact on the results of my experiment. Again this is a problem that I have to face when the experiment is repeated, although the carbon can be displace after each experiment, but the effect of which during the experiment cannot be solved.Now that I think it is appropriate to introduce a different method which would guarantee the energy of the reaction can be accurately measured. In the current experiment heat loss to the surroundings and therefore the energy towards the water was not efficient, but if the surroundings, where heat is given to, is water then maximum percentage of energy released by the experiment would be given to water where it can be measured. The error occurred in measurin g the mass was also a factor affecting the anomalous results, thus a given mass can be allowed to be completely combusted so that an accurate value can be obtained.Some of the energy given to water are lost, or transferred to the surrounding of the calorimeter which cannot be measured, the heat is transferred is because one system has more energy than the other. Knowing this if the calorimeter can be maintained at the same temperature as the water with, no heat transfer can occur through conduction, and when the calorimeter is concealed no further heat can escape by convection. In order to reduce radiation, as described above, the calorimeter can be coated in shiny colour. Rather than preceding the experiment in a spirit burner, where only a little mass of alcohol was being burnt which could not proved efficient energy output that the wrong proportion of which could be used to provide the efficiency for collision, and result in incomplete combustion.A larger mass could be burnt in a given length of time to produce more energy to secure further efficiency in collision. The appropriate apparatus which suites the description above would be a bomb calorimeter. (See diagram 1) The combustion would take place in the bomb where is cased with steel, which could with stand the impact of the explosion when alcohol being combusted and also conduct heat to the calorimeter. Within the bomb the reaction is triggered by a fuse-wire which is conducted to the mains, the fuse then burns the cotton attached to it and light the flame.The bomb is also well supplied with 25 atmosphere of oxygen, pumped in with a pipe, thus no draught is need. The bomb then will be placed in a calorimeter system filled with water, as stated above that maximum energy can be transferred in the water which can then be measured, the wall of this calorimeter will be filled with water and the temperature of which is controlled by a coil which equalizes the temperature so that heat cannot can not escape or get into the calorimeter. Because the heat cannot be transferred in or out of the calorimeter, the maximum temperature the system reaches would be almost, if not all the free energy of the reaction.As well as to discover the pattern among the primary alcohols, secondary and tertiary alcohols can also be investigated. We already know the relationship between the numbers of carbon atoms or the length of the carbon chain and the energy output, it would be equally significant to learn the science when the carbons are not in a chain or a irregular chain, and how a hybridized carbon if any at all is able to alter the results. Investigations could be among propan-2-ol, butan-2-ol, pentan-2-ol, hexan-2-ol, cyclohexanol and 2-methyl-propan-2-ol.